continental glass

After the decline of the Roman Empire the best glass was made in the Islamic countries with most of the glass produced in Europe being of a fairly basic recipe and it was not until the Venetians started producing luxury glassware that very high quality returned once again to Western Europe. However some attractive wares were being produced in the medieval period and although the decoration was of a fairly simple nature the effect could be very appealing with some interesting shapes and sparing use of colour.

 
reproduction of early Venetian goblet

Of course stained glass windows were being produced during the medieval period from at least as early as the ninth century though there are no buildings standing now which have glass remaining in them from this period fragments have been discovered during archaeological digs. At this time the glass was coloured by painting pigments on to clear glass and so pictures could be built up. Coloured glass in fact had been used in church windows from as early as the seventh century though probably just as a highlight to the clear glass and it is unlikely that it was used for depictions. Also used in churches were small squares of coloured glass, made from larger sheets, for mosaics. 

With the abundance of luxury items flowing through the port of Venice glass makers had plenty of inspiration for the designs of their wares as well as a ready market with the great wealth which was being produced by the Merchant classes. The industry was based on the island of Murano where it had been running since the thirteenth century and by the fifteenth century high class wares began to be made. These were bought by the wealthy of Europe and prices were generally high. Coloured glass seems to have been the predominant production made into elaborate shapes and decorated with enamelling and gilding. Being delicate and fragile the pieces were formed then gilded, fired to fix the gilding, then enamelled and fired once again their fragility helping to emphasise their preciousness their value was comparable to items made from gold or silver.  

The method of enamelled decoration is believed to have come to Venice from Syria via Spain and often depicted mythical or religious scenes as well as patterned decoration. Clear glass was being produced from the mid fifteenth century the metal having been refined from the earlier low quality green tinged glass this could also be cooled quickly with water causing the surface to form tiny cracks giving a look of melting ice on the surface of water. White glass which was called “lattimo” from the Italian word for milk was produced in imitation of Chinese porcelain which was much revered. Coming in to Venice from the Near East attempts to copy it were made but the glass imitations were probably the closest that were achieved until the first porcelain factory was set up in Florence in the 1570s. 

Marbled or agate glass was produced by mixing colours incompletely whilst at the molten stage the vessel was then formed with the effect being very realistic. Millefiori glass was produced by making rods of glass from different coloured sheets which were then rolled together in a way similar to seaside rock. The rods were then sliced into disks which were incorporated into vessels giving an almost floral effect. Filigrana glass was made from the second quarter of the sixteenth century here single coloured canes were incorporated into the molten glass by laying them down in various patterns, the clear glass would be blown into a bubble and then rolled onto the pattern which was picked up onto the surface before the finished shape was achieved. Often tiny pieces of gold leaf were incorporated into the mixture heightening the look of exuberance. The technique of diamond point engraving was also used in the decoration of wares in Venice. 

Glass was also produced in other parts of Italy such as Rome Naples and Altare but not much is known about these wares and they are probably similar to the production of Venice. Florence also appears to have been a centre for glass production around sixteen hundred and again wares were probably quite similar to those of Venice but here there seems to have been an effort to record what was being made and it seems that they tried to surpass the Venetian wares by being more elaborate and extravagant though little if any of these wares are now in existence and there is nothing now to link anything that has survived to the Florentine glass houses.

 
wine glass engraved with a hunting scene circa 1760

Venetian glass was highly prized throughout Europe and exported to many countries. Often the exported wares were produced specifically for the market of the country they were going to and were made in the shapes of articles formed from other materials which were peculiar to that country. The Venetian style greatly influenced glass in most other European countries and it can sometime be difficult to tell for certain whether a piece was made in Venice or is native to a certain country. This is particularly true of Germany where glass houses were set up in the late fifteenth century in Vienna and later at Laibach, Hall and Innsbruck. 

However the glass industry in Germany had been producing forest type glass for the home market for some time before this and rather than suffering from the competition it was able to coexist as the two markets would have been quite separate. There was probably an element of cross fertilisation with the traditional glass workers developing clear glass and the new industry producing some traditional type vessels all be it in a more elaborate manner. The humpen a large beaker for drinking ale from was developed in Bohemia, with some being as big as a gallon in capacity, and were often enamelled with a variety of subjects. Often the wares imitated silver and pottery forms of the period such as beer jugs and tankards as well as little beakers with three ball feet produced in the latter part of the seventeenth century similar to the silver ones of this period.

 
floral engraved tumbler circa 1760

The tradition of enamelling seems to have continued for longer in Germany than in Venice and was refined as time went on to suit the tastes of the period right up into the nineteenth century. Often pieces depicted scenes from biblical or literary subjects. During the eighteenth century the workshop of Ignaz Preissler is notable for his designs incorporating a predominant use of black enamel. Some of the early nineteenth century pieces are very detailed attractive in deed particularly those by Antoine Kothgasser. 

Wheel engraving on glass was a Germany invention and was done from the sixteenth century using water power to drive a variety of copper engraving wheels to great effect. Throughout the seventeenth century Glass makers had been striving to produce a better quality mix so as to make both the manufacture and decoration easier and more sophisticated. By about 1680 a mix had been produced in bohemia which allowed the molten glass to be worked more easily and the finished vessel to respond better to the engraving wheel. From this time engraving became the main method of decoration with Nuremburg producing some of the best work though in bohemia the thicker glass allowed the imitation of rock crystal. 

In France early glass was similar to the German forest type glass but by the fifteenth century it is believed that an Italian was working in Goult where glass similar to Venetian wares were probably made but nothing has actually been attributed to this glass house. In the early sixteenth century Venetian type wares were definitely being made and this type of production continued in to the seventeenth century. By the eighteenth century table glass had become less fashionable in France with the emphasis being on interior design.

 
pair of  French lead glass cut scent bottles circa 1820

The method of producing plate glass by passing the molten metal between two rollers was introduced towards the end of the seventeenth century which allowed much larger sheets to be made than ever before and France began to lead the way with the production of mirrors. Some of these could be as high as an entire wall which fitted in well with the fashions of the eighteenth century. Towards the end of the eighteenth century table glass was once more coming in to favour and lead crystal was being made at St Louis. These wares were quite similar to the productions of Britain and Ireland with extensive use of cutting and it can sometimes be difficult to differentiate between them. Generally the French wares are a little more feminine than the sturdier pieces from the British Isles.

 
Spanish decanter from the La Granja glass house circa 1780

Spain has had Links with the Islamic kingdom from Early Times and in the thirteenth century accepted many Jewish refugees who were fleeing persecution from much of Europe and particularly France. Early Spanish glass is often in the shapes of Islamic vessels. From the late fifteenth century Spanish glass was of equal quality to that of Venice and with very similar productions many pieces have been wrongly attributed. Also at this time was a Dutch influence. The Moorish influence can also be found particularity in the styles of decoration. Enamelling of glass continued longer in Spain than in Venice though gilding was not used to the same extent generally however all the techniques which were used by the Venetian glass makers were used in Spain. By the seventeenth century the quality of glass produced in Spain had deteriorated markedly though of the Venetian influence remained.

 
Spanish jar from the La Granja glass house circa 1780

In the eighteenth century whilst in Andalusia and Castile wares continued to be made in the Spanish style at La Granja de San Ildelfonso a bohemian style became fashionable. These wares were mostly in clear glass often with shallow polished line cuts as well as floral engraving which was usually gilded.

 
Tankard engraved with hunting scene circa 1770

Hollands early glass production was similar to that of Germany but again the Venetian influence arrived sometime around 1500. There was also a connection with Spain during the sixteenth century with Holland under Spanish rule and there was probably some migration of workers between the two countries. Towards the end of the sixteenth century Diamond point engraving became popular and was mostly performed by amateur engravers. When Holland eventuality broke away from the Spanish rule in 1648 they were able to trade freely and with the proximity to the sea a great trade could be built up. At this time the influence was still predominantly Venetian but there was beginning an influence from Germany and towards the end of the seventeenth century an English influence can be seen.

 
Silesian stem sweetmeat dish circa 1740

Sometime around 1645 the method of copper wheel engraving was introduced and some fine engraving was produced using this technique as well as diamond point and stipple engraving. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century the Dutch engravers were the best in the world with artists such as Anna and Maria Visscher and Willem Van Heemskirk being much admired in the seventeenth century and in the eighteenth century Frans Greenwood being renowned for his excellent stipple engraving. Many subjects were engraved on glass ware during the eighteenth century and around 1750 Newcastle light Baluster wine glasses were being sent to Holland to be engraved the lead glass allowing some very fine work to be produced.

 
Bohemian ruby flashed and engraved vase circa 1880

During the nineteenth century glass making underwent some great changes, the increased industrialisation allowing greater quantities to be produced at more reasonable prices and with the growing middle classes a new market was beginning to emerge. Exhibitions we’re being arranged in various different countries displaying an array of different wares. As the century progressed the emphasis moved from clear cut glass in to the coloured and more artistic styles. Throughout Europe a multitude of different influences could be seen from completely new techniques to the revival of earlier styles such as those which were used in sixteenth century Venice. Austria and Bohemia probably lead the way with new techniques and the rest of Europe was quick to catch up. From around The first world war the glass industry started to decline and has not yet recovered.